About the Civil Rights Cases of 1883

About the Civil Rights Cases of 1883   In the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which had prohibited racial discrimination in hotels, trains, and other public places, was unconstitutional. In an 8-1 decision, the court ruled that the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution did not give Congress the power to regulate the affairs of private individuals and businesses. Background During the post-Civil War Reconstruction Period between 1866 and 1875, Congress passed several civil rights laws intended to implement the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments. The last and most aggressive of these laws, the Civil Rights Act of 1875, imposed criminal penalties against the owners of private businesses or modes of transportation that restricted access to their facilities because of race. The law read, in part:   â€Å"†¦ all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters, and other places of public amusement; subject only to the conditions and limitations established by law, and applicable alike to citizens of every race and color, regardless of any previous condition of servitude.† Many people in both the South and the North objected to the Civil Rights Act of 1875, arguing that the law unfairly infringed on personal freedom of choice. Indeed, the legislatures of some Southern states had already enacted laws allowing separate public facilities for whites and African Americans. Details of the Civil Rights Cases of 1883 In the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, the Supreme Court took the rare route of deciding five separate but closely related cases with one unified ruling. The five cases (United States v. Stanley, United States v. Ryan, United States v. Nichols, United States v. Singleton, and Robinson v. Memphis Charleston Railroad) reached the Supreme Court on appeal from the lower federal courts and involved suits filed by African American citizens claiming they had been illegally been refused equal access to restaurants, hotels, theaters, and trains as required by the Civil Rights Act of 1875. During this time, many businesses had attempted to skirt the letter of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 by allowing African Americans to use their facilities, but forcing them to occupy separate â€Å"Colored Only† areas. Constitutional Questions The Supreme Court was asked to decide the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in light of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Specifically, the court considered: Did the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment apply to the day-to-day operations of privately-owned businesses?What specific protections did the 13th and 14th amendments provide for private citizens?Did the 14th Amendment, which prohibits state governments from practicing racial discrimination, also ban private individuals from discriminating under their right to â€Å"freedom of choice?† In other words, was â€Å"private racial segregation,† like designating â€Å"Coloreds Only† and â€Å"Whites Only† areas legal? The Arguments Presented to the Court Over the course of the case, the Supreme Court heard arguments for and against allowing private racial segregation and, thus, the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1875.    Ban Private Racial Segregation: Because the intent of the 13th and 14th Amendments had been to â€Å"remove the last vestiges of slavery† from America, the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was constitutional. By sanctioning practices of private racial discrimination, the Supreme Court would â€Å"permit the badges and incidents of slavery† to remain a part of Americans’ lives. The Constitution grants the federal government the power to prevent state governments from taking actions that deprive any U.S. citizen of his or her civil rights. Allow Private Racial Segregation: The 14th Amendment banned only the state governments from practicing racial discrimination, not private citizens. The 14th Amendment specifically declares, in part, â€Å"†¦ nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.† Enacted and enforced by the federal, rather than the state governments. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutionally infringed on the rights of private citizens to use and operate their property and businesses as they saw fit.   The Court’s Decision and Reasoning In an 8-1 opinion written by Justice Joseph P. Bradley, the Supreme Court found the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to be unconstitutional. Justice Bradley declared that neither the 13th nor the 14th Amendment granted Congress the power to enact laws dealing with racial discrimination by private citizens or businesses. Of the 13th Amendment, Bradley wrote, â€Å"The 13th Amendment has respect, not to distinctions of race †¦ but to slavery.† Bradley added, â€Å"The 13th Amendment relates to slavery and involuntary servitude (which it abolishes); ... yet such legislative power extends only to the subject of slavery and its incidents; and the denial of equal accommodations in inns, public conveyances and places of public amusement (which is forbidden by the sections in question), imposes no badge of slavery or involuntary servitude upon the party, but at most, infringes rights which are protected from State aggression by the 14th Amendment.† Justice Bradley went on to agree with the argument that the 14th Amendment applied only to the states, not to private citizens or businesses. â€Å"The 14th Amendment is prohibitory upon the States only, and the legislation authorized to be adopted by Congress for enforcing it is not direct legislation on the matters respecting which the States are prohibited from making or enforcing certain laws, or doing certain acts, but it is corrective legislation, such as may be necessary or proper for counteracting and redressing the effect of such laws or acts,† he wrote. The Lone Dissent of Justice Harlan Justice John Marshall Harlan wrote the only dissenting opinion in the Civil Rights Cases. Harlan’s belief that the majority’s â€Å"narrow and artificial† interpretation 13th and 14th Amendments led him to write, â€Å"I cannot resist the conclusion that the substance and spirit of the recent amendments of the Constitution have been sacrificed by a subtle and ingenious verbal criticism.† Harlan wrote that the 13th Amendment did far more than â€Å"to prohibit slavery as an institution,† it also â€Å"established and decreed universal civil freedom throughout the United States.† In addition, noted Harlan, Section II of the 13th Amendment decreed that â€Å"Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation,† and had thus been the basis for the  enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which granted full citizenship to all persons born in the United States. Basically, Harlan contended that the 13th and 14th Amendments, as well as the Civil Rights Act of 1875, were constitutional acts of Congress intended to ensure African Americans the same rights to access and use of public facilities that white citizens took for granted as their natural right. In summary, Harlan stated that the federal government had both the authority and the responsibility to protect citizens from any actions that deprive them of their rights and to allow private racial discrimination would â€Å"permit the badges and incidents of slavery† to remain. Impact of the Civil Rights Cases Decision The Supreme Court’s decision in the Civil Rights Cases virtually stripped the federal government of any power to ensure African Americans equal protection under the law. As Justice Harlan had predicted in his dissent, freed of the threat of federal restrictions, Southern states began enacting laws sanctioning racial segregation. In 1896, the Supreme Court cited its Civil Rights Cases ruling in its landmark Plessy v. Ferguson decision declaring that requiring separate facilities for blacks and whites was constitutional as long as those facilities were â€Å"equal† and that racial segregation itself did not amount to unlawful discrimination. So-called â€Å"separate but equal† segregated facilities, including schools, would persist for over 80 years until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s swayed public opinion to oppose racial discrimination. Eventually, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, enacted as part of the Great Society program of President Lyndon B. Johnson, incorporated several key elements of the Civil Rights Act of 1875.

Research article the False Memory Syndrome Foundation Paper

Article the False Memory Syndrome Foundation - Research Paper Example Cases of parents being accused by their children for traumatic incidence that purportedly happened years back were on the rise. The foundation would not only seek to understand the reasons for the rise of False Memory Syndrome, which was causing a lot of agony to families but also help prevent the condition. Moreover, the foundation provided a platform where affected families would support each other cope with the terrible agony of the loss of their offspring and the distress of being falsely accused of sexual abuse. The false memory syndrome has caused a lot of harm to both the children, parents and society as a whole. The condition has forced children to abandon their parent resulting to pain to parents from losing their loved ones. Accusations that go public causes trauma and creates stigma that would never go away even after the accusation are concluded to be false. The syndrome has forced affected families to seek counseling (False Memory Syndrome Foundation,

Economics term papaer Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economics papaer - Term Paper Example It would help in tightening the liquidity of the economy. It can be depicted that when such reserves are made by the commercial banks with the Central Bank then it has an impact upon the balance sheet of both the banks i.e. the Central Bank and the commercial bank. At the outset, there will be rise in the Central Bank’s liabilities since the quantity of deposits that the commercial bank is supposed to keep with the Central Bank is rising by 0.5%. Conversely, the assets side of the commercial bank will be impacted. There will be rise in the assets side of the commercial banks. It can be treated as deposits at other banks, so in the balance sheet there will be rise in the deposits at other banks too. Question Two It can be stated that there are four basic components of the GDP. They are consumption, investment, government spending and value of exports and imports. The GDP of an economy is calculated by adding up the value of expenditures on the consumption, value of the expendit ures in investments, rate of the government procurement of goods and/or services, value of exports of the goods and the services minus the value of the imports of the goods and the services. ... All the three components of the GDP will be impacted. The reason behind this is that when the inflation is controlled then the rate of consumption will increase and thus the economy will be able to invest more. Thus, there will be rise in the consumption, along with rise in the investment and government spending. There will be rise in the exports as well. Effects on the Equilibrium and Aggregate Expenses It can be demonstrated that since the consumption will rise, it is quite obvious that there will be rise in the production as well. Therefore, the equilibrium real GDP will increase. Question Three The term ‘money multiplier’ can be figured out as the volume of money supply in relation to the volume of the base money. It is worthwhile mentioning that when the reserve deposit ratio or the cash deposit ratio is lower then, the money multiplier tends to be higher. The case of China is just the opposite. It can be demonstrated that when the economy plans to raise the reserve ratio requirement for the banks the money multiplier tends to shrink. Investment Multiplier It has been noticed that Central Bank planned to augment the rate of interest. If the rate of interest augments then more and more investors get attracted towards the bank. Although paying up of augmented interest rate is an increased cost for the Central Bank, but on the flip side, it can be viewed that the rise in the interest rate may tend to make it quite attractive for the international investors to purchase Renminbi and thus invest those Renminbi in China. With the rise in the interest rates, the income tends to rise thus forcing the consumers to invest in other sectors of the economy as well leading to growth in the overall economy (Bradsher, â€Å"China Move Could

Healthy People 2020 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Healthy People 2020 - Essay Example Unarguably, the global landscape is an important factor when considering global health. The matter becomes significantly more important when getting down to a direction and possible steps to be involved in securing these goals, particularly in the presence of hard facts and ground realities. Global health is of immense importance to the United States due to its ability to transcend the physical borders of states and enter the US thereby threatening the health and security of the American population. Initially, the concern regarding global health has focused on the providence and availability of superior health care systems and technologies in the developing and underdeveloped countries. Generous donations have provided with the monetary support for dealing with high profile diseases and fundamental technologies yet there is a need for a more lasting identification of the bulk of health care issues. Koh, Piotrowski, Kumanyika and Fielding (2011) recognize the significance of global he alth in encouraging maximum success pertaining to public health issues through greater data accessibility, better target setting procedure, attainable strategic goals, and quality health measures. Since the health of the American population is closely linked with global health, health care reform laws passed within recent years can provide new opportunities for the promotion of health and wellness within national borders and beyond so as to yield a healthier world community by 2020 and hence a healthier America.

Key Theories Of Desistance From Crime Criminology Essay

Key Theories Of Desistance From Crime Criminology Essay When a criminal is able to stop the behavior that characterizes his or her criminal activities, the gradual process involved is what is termed as desistance. Apart from the fact that it has practical applications for probation workers with criminal offenders from the community, desistance also has a strong link and connection in the rehabilitation of a criminal. However, it is evident that theories of desistance when compared to the theories of the start of criminal behavior have not been fully researched on and expanded in the field of criminology (Smith, 2007). It is therefore a good sign when studies of desistance increase drastically especially since the last twenty years; this has been particularly noticeable after the formulation of the life course theory that was done by Sampson and Laub. But as Piquero (2004:103) explains, continued research has been significantly affected by methodological and theoretical issues. Moreover, theorists in the field have not been able to come up with a universal definition of desistance. Consequently this paper endeavors to create a workable definition of desistance and to furthermore give a preview of the updated main facts and theories of desistance. Understanding desistance Oxford Dictionary defines desistance as, to desist or to stop doing something; cease or abstain. Applying this definition to criminology is however a bit technical. The big question is usually about time, if a criminal is able to stop a certain criminal behavior for four weeks for example, is it correct to classify him or her as an accomplished case of desistance? What is the recommended time for one to be sure that he or she is free from the crime? Developing a clear definition of desistance therefore becomes quite an issue especially since it is not well understood whether or not relapse and recidivism are crucial in the study of desistance. The option of observing a criminals past behavior to best highlights his or her possible future behavior is also still not well structured (LeBel et al, 2004). Laub and Sampson (2001) as a matter of fact agree that a definition of desistance cannot be made, they support that the questions in a particular research best deduce the definition of d esistance for the researcher (cited in Maruna, 2006). According to Shadd Maruna, for a habitual offender, any recognizable time spent without doing any crime is called primary desistance. However studies on recidivism and relapse cannot be complete without an outline of achieving long term desistance. Maruna goes on to therefore state that secondary desistance is when a criminal is able to change his identity and take an almost permanent direction to a life free of the initial crime that was a norm in his behavior. Studying secondary desistance is important as it seeks to understand how initial offenders can be able to keep a distance from their crimes. Desistance is therefore not the final result of the end of a crime; it is actually the process that is gradual and continuous till the end result of successful desistance. Sampson and Laub (2001) acknowledge that there is a huge difference between the stopping an offence and the continuous change to a crime free lifestyle. They mark that as compared to theories of offending, desistance theories have not yet been fully studied and explained, however desistance is now understood as the procedure necessary for acquiring a n accomplished state of non-offence. It is important that a criminal who wants to change must be willing to change his or her self identity and concept to be able to grasp the full context of change. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) explain that on the contrary it is a common occurrence to find ex-offenders who have undergone desistance commit other acts of deviance, (cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003: 298). Desistance is therefore basically the ability of a former criminal to be able to completely withdraw from a crime and to maintain being in that state regardless of the challenges involved when trying to keep away. Some of these challenges are drug abuse and addiction, unemployment, few academic opportunities, social pressure and return to environments with high crime rates (Richards and Jones, 2004). Career criminals are those who have been criminal offenders for a considerably long period of time (Maruna, 2001). According to Laub and Sampson (2003), career criminals rather than small time offenders should be given more attention in researches on desistance. However another major problem in the study of desistance is the availability of completely successful offenders in desistance to the researchers in the field (Maruna, 2001; Burnett, 2004). Total desistance to many ex-offenders is quite a hard step as most of them usually end up going back to their initial criminal tendencies (Piquero, 2004). Addiction is a very significant factor that is more often overlooked yet its contribution to the whole process of desistance has a major impact on the ability of a criminal to completely change. It is therefore important to understand the connection between the two before arriving at a definition of desistance. From a number of researches it has been recognized that the link between addiction and criminal activities is actually very strong. A drug addict is therefore more likely to engage in crimes (Maruna, 2001). Moreover the cause of addiction and criminality are as a matter of fact very similar. Frisher and Beckett (2006:141) found that a large percentage of drug abusers are very active members in criminal gangs. Therefore, when defining desistance, it is necessary to note that the complete resistance of both criminal offending and drug abuse must be realized (Maruna, 2001). To achieve the purpose of this paper desistance can be described and defined as the initial process allowing quality desistance from drug abuse, criminality and other forms of deviance for an ex- criminal. Quality desistance in this case is the is the total termination of previous criminal behaviors together with other possible forms of deviance like drug abuse for at least ten years accompanied by a change in the identity of an individual. Desistance theories Ageing Age has been found to be a significant factor in criminology, as one grows older it is noted that their level of criminality greatly reduces. (Smith, 2007; Sampson and Laub, 2003; Gluecks, 1943; cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003; Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990; cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003). In 2000 in the United Kingdom 19 year olds were found to have committed crimes fifty times more those which men of over fifty years had committed. According to research the total lifespan of a criminal is usually general considering factors like early deaths, imprisonment and when a criminal is evolving to avoid being detected (Maruna, 2006). In a research of 411 criminal males in London, Farrington (1990) realized that as the criminals grew older, their crimes reduced greatly with time but this however depended on different types of crimes (cited in Smith, 2007). For example, burglary is at its highest at age 20 while fraud and drug abuse offences record their highest at the age of 25 all the way to 30 as burglary sets on a steady decline afterwards. Nevertheless for the persistent hardcore criminals into their 70s, there was a clear connection between their age and their crime rates according to studies by Laub and Sampson (2003, 2005, 2005b). Furthermore they realized that alcohol and drug offences were their highest in the mid- thirties as compared to other offences. They finally came to a conclusion that both age and the type of crimes affect the whole process of desistance as well. However there have been different explanations to the not clear age crime curve. Developmental criminologists have been able to link the age of an offender and the capability of total desistance to childhood related issues. (Mulver et al, 1988; cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003; Nagin, 2005; cited in Sampson and Laub, 2005a) Offenders are therefore divided into two distinct groups, the adolescent and the persistent adult offenders. As a result it will be evident that in their late teens the adolescents will be able to grown out of crime and will be able to work on their social circles basically due to their education and good social integration skills. The adult offender however will find it very hard to terminate deviancy due to unsuccessful relationships, academic prospects and also due to their low cognitive capabilities (Moffitt, 1993; 1994; cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003). As a result of this theory, criminals are therefore grouped into two separate groups that are very different from each other due to childhood causes. And for any chance of desistance then one has to be in the right group. Sampson and Laub (2003; 2005a; 2005b) on the other hand are against that approach and explain that anyone can be successful in desistance irrespective of which group they fall in (2003:179). According to them childhood factors of offence do not determine desistance but instead help to explain the whole process of desis tance. Gottfredson and Hirschi have their views as well and point out that with the gradual process of growing old offenders usually find themselves stopping deviance (1995; cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003). They expound that for any organism there is always a stage of discontinuity that applies to criminology and the study of desistance and its links with age. Consequently, desistance becomes an expected phenomenon in the normal life of a criminal. Maruna (2001) however does not fully agree with this because according to him desistance, especially at the beginning, takes a huge amount of emotional, psychological and even physical effort and resources. Gluecks (1943) agrees with this too because he highlighted that desistance is from a change that comes with maturity, meaning, an offender gradually stops committing a crime (cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003). This process is more often evidenced after the age 25 when a criminal starts tiring and gets less involved with crime. This theory howe ver is not left out on the criticisms since it is claimed that it does not fully address the issue of age and its role in desistance (Maruna, 2001; Sampson and Laub, 2003). Acknowledging that age is a significant factor in desistance, Sampson and Laub (1992) further argue that the importance of turning points in life and social contacts is underestimated in the maturational reform (cited in Maruna, 2001). Life Course Theory A significant study on 500 men up to the age of 32 was carried in the 1930s and 1940s by the Gluecks (1943; cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003; 2005a; 2005b). Sampson and Laub later on in an impressive research followed up on 52 of these men and investigated on their criminal career to the age of 70. They found out that the causes of desistance and persistence are actually opposites, namely, deliberately productive agency, establishment of limits in social relationships and organized routine activities (Sampson and Laub, 2003; 2005a; 2005b; 2006). Their finding indicated that job stability, military service and marriage were able to positively contribute to achieving desistance. These turning points were realized in the process of desistance whereby an offender seeks to start a new life by changing location or even starting a new job like entering the military for example. This however does not necessarily involve starting over, sometimes these offenders work to gain back and maintain t heir original contacts like a job or a marriage in their quest to stop their criminal tendencies. Whichever path desistance takes these turning points often lead to: an elimination of the past chance for the growth and development of new social contacts that have a positive effect on an individual types of direct and indirect evaluation and observance of character planned routines with a central concern to family rather than peers circumstances allowing for change in identity and development of new scripts of a new self These factors, they explain are true and are not affected by the type of marriage and the crime life of an individual , though informal, parenthood and cohabiting have also been linked to successful desistance (Sampson and Laub, 2006; Katz, 1999). Individuals with none of these social bonds are also more able to stop offending because; in the end they do not lose anything. Rebecca Katz (1999:13) indicates that, families may play a significant role in developing desistance since family influences self control and delinquency. Life course theory emphasizes on the strong influence of the social environment to offending explaining that absence of criminal peers reduces the chances of an individual ever engaging in offences and in the end positive attitudes favoring change will grow (Warr, 1998; cited in Sampson and Laub, 2003). Life Course Theory contradicts the link between developmental theories in criminal careers and desistance. It agrees that adulthood experiences are essential as w ell but to some point more significant in establishing the possible trajectory of desistance (2003). Circumstances, structural set-ups and personal choices all work together to promote desistance. The theme that desistance is a systematic process that continuously gets renewed, underestimates the importance of research on personal encouragement and the influence of social environment (Sampson and Laub, 2003:171) Agency Yet another essential element that has been pointed out as key in achieving successful desistance is agency. (Burnett, 2004; Maruna, 2001; McNeill, 2006; Maguire et al, 2006; Maruna, 2001; Sampson and Laub, 2005 a). The theory of rational offence understands the fact that a criminal is able to make decisions based on his judgment of what is good or bad according to him in his crime life. Agency therefore works hand in hand with rational choice in the key decision making processes of a criminal. Agency is important since it assists in the overall process of making a rational choice. Furthermore, when the inconsistent prototypes of criminal activities are considered together with financial and familial challenges most criminal encounter the theory of rational choice cannot by its own back up volitions to desist (Burnett, 2004; Sampson and Laub, 2005b). In their study of the Gluecks men Sampson and Laub (2005a) discovered that agency was a necessary component in the process of desistanc e. There is more to the structural support in the process of desistance, agency is required to offer the determination and persistence part of the equation. Agency determines the will to keep moving on and only those who are persistent will be able to manage the whole process. Measuring the determination and charge to persist the whole process of desistance is quite a challenge and as a result creates yet another crucial factor in the concept of turning points (Maruna, 2001) (Sampson and Laub, 2005a:177). Moreover it is a quintessential component in the study of desistance and persistence in a criminal career that has however not been fully researched to date. In their research of the life course theory Sampson and Laub assert that they have been seeking to explain the importance of the human agency as an aid in understanding desistance and other deviance forms (2003:177). Knifing offà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ ones past, has come out to be a vital element to describe the ability to be able to accomplish a successful desistance for some individuals. To achieve this voluntarily, agency is necessary since it is one of the most difficult things to do and needs a lot of determination. It is a process that is more often accompanied by cutting all past contacts and establishing new ones for example geographical location and family. Most importantly though, Maruna et al (2006a) explained that it can as well involve change from the inside, or a change in the way the offender thinks about him or herself, their past, and their environment. It is this positive change that motivates an offender to persist on and maintain desistance for longer (Maruna, 2001; Sampson and Laub, 2003; 2005a; Maguire et al, 2006). Contemplation time was found to be a crucial moment that assisted in creating a turning point to desistance according to a study by Margaret Hughes (1998). And it was found that the opportunity to contemplate came as a result of a change in geographical location, imprisonment and residential treatment programmes. Hughes participants found their desire to change develop when they removed from the usual environments and being able to get ample time for self actualization. Social identity Researchers have tried to explain the phenomenon whereby some individual are able to sustain long term resistance while others do not, and it has been discovered that apart from agency, an individuals self identity change is similarly necessary. When an offender creates a a different set of beliefs and perspective chances of maintaining desistance are normally guaranteed to some point (Burnett, 2004). That is why programs like the cognitive behavioral therapy and the 12 step that work to develop a change in personal identity are advocated for during incarceration (Maruna, 2001). Each and every individual, whether an ex-offender, offender or normal citizen has a unique self identity through which their actions are guided upon, it is therefore as a result of this mechanisms that give people the different circumstances they exist in. The significance of change in a criminal life is often subjectified by self-narratives (McNiell, 2006). More often though not a fact; self narratives have been of assistance when people seek to explain their actions. Narratives very often change throughout the life course and understanding narratives, helps individuals realize the significance of past and present events in our lives (Sampson and Laub, 2005a). In a desistance study in Liverpool, Shadd Maruna investigated the different self narratives of two distinct groups of offenders whereby one persisted and the other desisted, to account for the changes in ex-offender identities (Maruna, 2001). He was able to find out that both the desisting and persistent criminals actually had more or less the same personality characteristics and were not as agreeable and conscious as the general population. Self-narratives are the only components that divided the two groups after thorough interviews. Active offenders had what Maruna called a, condemnation scriptà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ (2001), meaning, they saw life as an unfortunate abyss of hostility and uncertainty. They believed that circumstances had pushed them to their present situation and there was nothing they could do to change things and that the authority pushed them even further away. Desisting ex-offenders on the other hand had a positive outlook on their past and present and this is what assi sted them to continue with their desistance process. It is this self-narrative that may be the tool needed for successful desistance. The past and present life of an ex-offender is often different and this is almost basically due to the self narrative (Maruna et al, 2007). This self narrative attaches a psychological component to the real facts of the past and creates a purpose and meaning in the life of an offender. This is what brings about the positive outlook and assists in achieving desistance. In a study focused completely on religious changes of rehabilitated offenders, Maruna et al discovered that their self-narrative was interestingly altered after changing their religious beliefs (Maruna et al, 2006b). As a result the importance of this self narrative is once more highlighted as it helps an offender realize that the past can be changed and that the future has a hope even for those in long sentences. The offender is therefore able to have a new sense of identity, empowerment, purpose and forgiveness. The self narratives of most offenders in the desisting group have a common characteristic Maruna describes as, the redemption scriptà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ (2001). This is basically the belief that an offender is a good person and that his or her past was merely as a result of circumstances of crime, recidivism and addiction. As a result of this, the offenders are able to endeavor to live new lives as they continue in with their desistance. They are then able to view themselves as role models with the necessary knowledge and experience to advice and educate the next generations, something Maruna calls, Making Goodà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸. The major difference therefore between the desisting offenders and the persistent ones is the positive energy they surround themselves with. Confidence and self belief are as a result pointed out to be essential qualities as they guide an offender to understand that their past was a necessary component for them to be where they are at the present. This redemptive narrative helps them realize that they are not their past and that their future is what that matters. The acknowledgement of a supreme power beyond them has also been a contributing factor in the lives of these offenders. This is because they realize that their past might have been a plan to give them the positions they hold in the present, like being counselors and youth leaders. This moral superiority and change from the past, according to Maruna, is to make up for long stretches of lost life. During desistance according to Stephen Farrall some offenders undergo long periods of creating new social identities (2006:85). However much these offenders change, it is not forgotten that they acknowledge they are responsible for their criminal past. Ideologies that ex-offenders feel responsibility and burden from their past crimes are actually not evidenced by researches (Maruna, 2007). Successful offenders in desistance often admit to the guilt of their past but they however rationalize their actions and justify or blame themselves and accept that circumstances might have pushed them to criminality. Sometimes however they do not accept their actions and believe that the society pushed them to crime. This however does not cultivate the necessity of an ex-offender to acknowledge the wrongs from past life rather than putting blame on the society and the initial environment (Maruna, 2001). The Liverpool Desistance Study prove that a concurrent characteristic of the redemption script is an offender accepting to take control of changing his future however they do not acknowledge their past crimes. However a concurrent observation is made that most candidates of successful desistance accept responsibility for their past and future and have the will to persist the challenges they will face. Maruna (2001:88) consequently gives the summary of the desisting persons narrative as: development of inner beliefs that truly describes an individuals personality a positive look at an individuals capability of changing in the future the purpose driven enthusiasm of giving back to the community particularly the next generation Life-Course-Persistent and Moffit Adolescence Deviance: Groups of Development Moffitts (1993) concept of dual taxonomy of offending similarly tries to explain the processes of desistance and persistence. Moffitt (ibid) outlined that offenders can be grouped into two; adolescent limiteds and life persisters. Moffitt proposes that the two groups are different and unique from each other in their offence and desistance processes, with the life course persisters having a different aetiology to the adolescent limited offenders. It is explained that they may be suffering neurological problems that affects their cognitive and learning skills. This is therefore evidenced by poor social skills even in the family leading to the various forms of anti social behavior and poor self control Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990). Early signs of antisocial behavior are a common characteristic of life course persisters (for example under-age drinking, premarital sex) as a result they are often excommunicated from their initial societal setting because of poor behavior, development and social bonds. Early signs of antisocial behaviors like these are normally a clear indication of a persistent criminal career in the future. This will be in connection to the age graded theory meaning there patterns of crime will be different and theirs will be a continuous cycle of events of affected marriages, work, education and relationships. Moffitt continues to argue that adolescent limited are not affected by any neurological problems like life course persisters and are able to successfully develop their social networks and cognitive skills. Therefore the causal factors for their criminality are connected to the gap between social development, age and desires. Age for example prevents them from engaging in adult behavior like sex or drinking. As a result of deviance from their desires, they tend to associate with the life course persister leading to the growth of their deviance. However, due to their developed social skills and academic success they are likely to be able to change more easily if they choose desistance. This is because they will be able to depend on their strong social bonds for support. Maruna (cited Laub Sampson 2001) explains that as a result of giving more credit to dispositional rather than personality traits, the proper steps involved in discovering the consistency of criminality is achieved. Sampson and Laub note that when personality traits do not change gradually with time people are still more often capable of making a change. Researchers therefore have to examine other factors influencing personalities like personal strategies and self-perceptions Maruna (cited ibid). Narrative script There are two distinct narrative script types in the desistance literature that highlight how criminals really view themselves and their societal roles. For the persisters their script usually has a concurrent theme of condemnation. More often they blame external conditions like poor family relations and lack of education for their criminality. They generally have an external locus of control. In contrast the offenders who finally become successful in desistance have a redemption script. They are complete opposites of the latter and are fully responsible for their actions. As a result they make a positive choice to stop the crime by accepting rehabilitation programmes. They are described to have an internal locus of control. Factors that influence the particular narrative script that gets adopted by a criminal are majorly internal factors such as personality and genetics especially after rehabilitation. A higher chance of a redemptive script is noted to be as a result of intense rehabilitation. A probation workers relationship with an offender has also been linked to affect desistance. It is there important for these officers to have empathy skills that are crucial in the process of guiding an offender to desistance as they strive to be able to re-integrate back into the society. Relevance of desistance theory The desistance theory is relevant in a number of different applied and academic professions. The desistance theory to researchers may provide a foundation to be able to examine the different factors that contribute to the cessation of a criminal offence from a theoretical view. The desistance theory allows for a number of different crimes in history and their approaches like the Lombrosian biological positivism, to have consideration in the present society which has an evident difference in its ways of thinking. As a result criminology is more understood and its relationship with other disciplines like psychology, politics and social policy acknowledged. This will consequently allow the development of collaboration for a positive cause of reducing re offence rates. The desistance theory on a practical level has assisted the criminal justice system (CJS) to identify possible solutions to cases of reoffending of successful candidates of desistance through for example initiating community based sentences. This kind of programme is sure to gradually decrease the number of criminals in HM Prison Service institutions for short periods. Studies have shown that short-term sentences in prisons for example (those for less than six months) often lead to increased crime rates after release. This is well explained by the fact that these short-term prisoners to not undergo complete metamorphosis from not covering all the rehabilitation programs. Their exposure to the hard core criminals in the prisons who have been there for longer and have been experienced criminals also contributes to their overall change. In addition desistance theory assists in the continuous development of training programmes for the respective professionals responsible for working with ex-offenders in the community. For example the Probation Service (see Narrative script section, above). Controversies It is important for the general public to realize that desistance is achievable and takes time. Offenders should therefore not be viewed as bad people who cannot live with others even after rehabilitation programs. The public is therefore advised not to discriminate these groups of people in their society. Reintegration cases of offenders back into the society have always caused massive outrages by a large percentage of the public community. There are numerous related cases of such circumstances that have often been quite difficult and delicate to handle. For example in 2011, the case of the reintegration of Jason Owen, he had been imprisoned for allegedly taking part in the killing of Baby P (Peter Connelly) in 2007, and in 2011 he was the released after his sentence was over. The Sun newspaper immediately kicked off a campaign to find him. Readers were urged to write and report to the newspaper of any knowledge of his whereabouts. There was an article in the same newspaper that sent sentiments of outrage over the fact that the ex-convict had actually tried to find a job. This is a clear indication of how the effort of successful psychological research can be nullified by news reports in the popular media. This kind of outrageous reporting is especially a common characteristic of Tabloid newspapers. Their influence over the public is often impressive and they are as a result able to manipulate and affect the attitudes of the wider public towards their view of desistance and offenders. As a result of this, future recidivism is often developed gradually due to the ill-informed public. Newspapers then use this recidivism as proof of their initial correctness. Conclusion

Eye For An Eye Or Turn The Other Cheek? :: essays research papers fc

It is a time of mourning for the United States. They are now being compared with the countries they, themselves, condemn. The death penalty is cruel and unusual because it breaks sacred amendments and commandments. The death penalty should no longer be an option. According to many people, "we have progressed since the barbaric stone-age," (Alexander 1) yet our Judicial system does not seem to show it. Murdering someone is a barbaric act, whether it is by an individual, society, or our government. Everyone has heard the saying, "two wrongs don't make a right," what would one call the death penalty? The death penalty must be eliminated because it kills innocents and destroys our fundamental human rights: "the right to life" (Reddall 1), it is racially biased, it is based on revenge not as a deterrent and it does not deter crime, it is more expensive, and it goes directly against The Bible. Whether someone wants to believe it or not, innocent people have been sent to death row. "From 1900 to 1985, 350 people imposed with the death penalty were innocent, and 23 of those people were actually put to death" (Cruel 2). Supporters of the death penalty seem to show no remorse for these deaths. One supporter said, "In the medical profession almost 100,000 people are wrongly killed every year by errors, and we fix them and move on" (McLaughlin 2). These barbaric acts should not come as a shock, though. "The United States is one of only five countries in the world that execute minors. The U.S. joins Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen" (Cruel 1). It seems ironic that all four other countries the U.S. condemns for human's rights violations. "Abma criticized the U.S. for using a 'double standard' in human rights cases. He said a large gap exists 'between what the U.S. is saying to others and what the U.S. is doing to its own citizens.' He cite d cases of police brutality and poor prison conditions, aside the obvious death penalty, as examples" (Yashiro 1). â€Å"I have full sympathy for the families of murder and other crimes, but I refuse to accept that one death justifies another† (Reddall 1). Capitol punishment is an act from ages ago and should no longer be used. Although, the argument already seems logical there is still more that can be argued. â€Å"Contrary to popular belief, capitol punishment is 4 to 6 times more expensive than life imprisonment† (McLaughlin 2).

Impormasyon Tungkol sa Silangang Asia Essay

Our vision is to become the premier company in the baking industry and related food and beverage industry, known and emulated for our best quality products that delight the consumer. It is the pride of every employee, investor, trade partner and stakeholder. Our mission is to serve consumers with the best quality assortment of great-tasting bakery and related food and beverage products, with world-class manufacturing facilities and an efficient nationwide distribution network, thereby providing a fair return on shareholder investments. – Gardenia Our Vision is to be world class company and service provider of choice. Our mission is to provide our customers the best value in energy, products and services. – Meralco To create new value, excite and delight our customers through the best automotive products and services. With passion, pride and speed, we actively communicate with our customers to deliver insightful automotive products and services that exceed their expectations. – Mazda To take the lead in realizing San Miguel Corporation’s commitment to social development in the Company’s effort to contribute towards the improvement of life in the communities in which it operates and the public it serves. San Miguel Foundation, Inc. is committed to the empowerment of San Miguel host communities and various stakeholders by harnessing corporate social responsibility among the various San Miguel businesses in pursuing mutually beneficial programs that lead to self-reliance and sustainability. – San Miguel Corporation Our vision is put into an action through programs and focus on environmental stewardship, activities to benefit society, and a commitment to build  shareholder value by making PepsiCo a truly sustainable company. To be the world’s premier consumer products company focused on convenient foods and beverages. We seek to produce financial reward to investors as we provide opportunities for growth and enrichment to our employees, our business partners and communities in which we operate. And in everything we do, we strive for honestly, fairness, and integrity. – PepsiCo Our vision serves as the framework for our Roadmap and guides every aspect of our business by describing what we need to accomplish in order to continue achieving sustainable, quality growth. Our Roadmap starts with our mission, which is enduring. It declares our purpose as a company and serves as the standard against which we weigh our actions and decisions. – Coca Cola By 2018, Landbank will be the top universal bank promoting inclusive growth and improving the quality of life especially in the country side through the delivery of innovative financial and other services in all provinces, cities and municipalities. To our clients: We will use the best technology and solutions to deliver responsive financial and support services to our clients while promoting sustainable development and environmental protection. To our Employees: We will develop and nurture talents that will exemplify the highest standards of ethics and excellence consistent with the best in the world. – Landbank of the Philippines PNOC by 2025: A world class organization that executes the country’s energy strategy toward self- sufficiency, sustainability, stability of prices, and security of supply. Through the efforts and initiative of world class professionals, PNOC is committed to: 1. Develop and implement projects and programs in a financially prudent and responsible manner aimed at increasing the country’s self sufficiency level in oil, gas and other energy sources 2. ENSURE SECURITY OF SUPPLY: CONTRIBUTING TO ENERGY PRICE STABILITY AND AFFORDABILITY. 3. Foster sustainable and environmentally – friendly sources of energy: 4. Promote and maintain the highest standards of service and corporate governance – Phil. National Oil Company Be the leader in sustainable world – class transport infrastructure and services. We build and provide quality transport infrastructure and services to enable customers to experience the joy of safe travel, to drive and trade and commerce that stimulates the country’s socio – economic growth. – Manila North Tollways Corporation Mission We find creative ways to make every click, call and touch work for you in every stage of your life in a way that is always human, meaningful and fun. VISION: Happiest employees, customers, shareholders. – Globe telecom